Differences Between Linux And Windows
By Matt Gebhardt

This article will discuss the differences between the Linux and Windows operating software; we discuss some of the pro’s and con’s of each system.

Let us first start out with a general overview of the Linux operating system. Linux at its most basic form is a computer kernel. The Kernel is the underlying computer code, used to communicate with hardware, and other system software, it also runs all of the basic functions of the computer.

The Linux Kernel is an operating system, which runs on a wide variety of hardware and for a variety of purposes. Linux is capable of running on devices as simple as a wrist watch, or a cell phone, but it can also run on a home computer using, for example Intel, or AMD processors, and its even capable of running on high end servers using Sun Sparc CPU’s or IBM power PC processors. Some Linux distro’s can only run one processor, while others can run many at once.

Common uses for Linux include that of a home desktop computing system, or more commonly for a server application, such as use as a web server, or mail server. You can even use Linux as a dedicated firewall to help protect other machines that are on the same network.

A programmer student named Linus Torvalds first made Linux as a variant of the Unix operating system in 1991. Linus Torvalds made Linux open source with the GNU (GPL) (General Public License), so other programmers could download the source code free of charge and alter it any way they see fit. Thousands of coders throughout the world began downloading and altering the source code of Linux, applying patches, and bug fixes, and other improvements, to make the OS better and better. Over the years Linux has gone from a simple text based clone of Unix, to a powerful operating software, with full-featured desktop environments, and unprecedented portability, and a variety of uses. Most of the original Unix code has also been gradually written out of Linux over the years.

As a result of Linux being open source software, there is no one version of Linux; instead there are many different versions or distributions of Linux, that are suited for a variety of different users and task. Some Distributions of Linux include Gentoo, and Slackware, which due to the lack of a complete graphical environment is best, suited for Linux experts, programmers, and other users that know their way around a command prompt. Distributions that lack a graphical environment are best suited for older computers lacking the processing power necessary to process graphics, or for computers performing processor intensive task, where it is desirable to have all of the system resources focused on the task at hand, rather than wasting resources by processing graphics. Other Linux distributions aim at making the computing experience as easy as possible. Distributions such as Ubuntu, or Linspire make Linux far easier to use, by offering full-featured graphical environments that help eliminate the need for a command prompt. Of course the downside of ease of use is less configurability, and wasted system resources on graphics processing. Other distributions such as Suse try to find a common ground between ease of use and configurability.

“Linux has two parts, they include the Kernel mentioned previously, and in most circumstances it will also include a graphical user interface, which runs atop the Kernel” reference #3. In most cases the user will communicate with the computer via the graphical user interface. (ref #6) Some of the more common graphical environments that can run on Linux include the following. The KDE GUI (Graphical user interface). Matthias Ettrich developed KDE in 1996. He wanted a GUI for the Unix desktop that would make all of the applications look and feel alike. He also wanted a desktop environment for Unix that would be easier to use than the ones available at the time. KDE is a free open source project, with millions of coders working on it throughout the world, but it also has some commercial support from companies such as Novell, Troltech, and Mandriva. KDE aims to make an easy to use desktop environment without sacrificing configurability. Windows users might note that KDE has a similar look to Windows. Another popular GUI is (ref #7) GNOME. GNOME puts a heavy emphasis on simplicity, and user ability. Much like KDE GNOME is open source and is free to download. One notable feature of GNOME is the fact that it supports many different languages; GNOME supports over 100 different languages. Gnome is license under the LGPL license (lesser general public license). The license allows applications written for GNOME to use a much wider set of licenses, including some commercial applications. The name GNOME stands for GNU Network object model environment. GNOME’s look and feel is similar to that of other desktop environments. Fluxbox is another example of a Linux GUI. With less of an emphasis on ease of use and eye candy, Fluxbox aims to be a very lightweight, and a more efficient user of system resources. The interface has only a taskbar and a menu bar, which is accessed by right clicking over the desktop. Fluxbox is most popular for use with older computers that have a limited abundance of system resources.

Although most Linux distributions offer a graphical environment, to simplify the user experience, they all also offer a way for more technically involved users to directly communicate with the Kernel via a shell or command line. The command line allows you to run the computer without a GUI, by executing commands from a text-based interface. An advantage of using the command prompt is it uses less system resources and enables your computer to focus more of its energy on the task at hand. Examples of commands include the cd command for changing your directory, or the halt command for shutting down your system, or the reboot command for restarting the computer ect.

Now that we are more familiar with the Linux operating system, we can note the many ways in which Linux differs from the worlds most popular OS, Microsoft Windows. From this point forward we will discuss some of the more prominent ways in which Linux deferrers from Windows.

For starters there is only one company that releases a Windows operating system, and that company is Microsoft. All versions of Windows, weather Windows XP Home, Business, or Vista, all updates, security patches, and service patches for Windows comes from Microsoft. With Linux on the other hand there is not one company that releases it. Linux has millions of coders and companies throughout the world, volunteering their time to work on patches, updates, newer versions, and software applications. Although some companies, charge for TECH support, and others charge for their distribution of Linux, by packaging it with non-free software, you will always be able to get the Linux Kernel for free, and you can get full-featured Linux desktops with all the necessary applications for general use, for free as well. The vendors that charge money for their distribution of Linux are also required to release a free version in order to comply with the GPL License agreement. With Microsoft Windows on the other hand you have to pay Microsoft for the software, and you will also have to pay for most of the applications that you will use.

Windows and Linux also differ on TECH support issues. Windows is backed by the Microsoft Corporation, which means that if you have an issue with any of their products the company should resolve it. For example if Microsoft Windows is not working right, then you should be able to call Microsoft and make use of their TECH support to fix the issue. TECH support is usually included with the purchase of the product for a certain amount of time, maybe a two year period, and from there on you may be charged for the service. Although IBM backs their Linux products, for the most part if you use Linux you are on your own. If you have a problem with Ubuntu Linux you cannot call Ubuntu and expect any help. Despite the lack of professional help, you can however receive good TECH advice, from the thousands or millions of Linux forums that are on the web. You ca also get great help from social networking sites such as Myspace, by posting questions in the many Linux groups. You can usually receive responses for your questions in a matter of hours form many qualified people.

Configurability is another key difference between the two operating software’s. Although Windows offers its control panel to help users configure the computer to their liking, it does not match the configuring options that Linux provides especially if you are a real TECH savvy user. In Linux the Kernel is open source, so if you have the know how, you can modify it in virtually any way that you see fit. Also Linux offers a variety of Graphical environments to further suit your needs. As mentioned earlier Linux is capable of running full-featured graphical environments like KDE, or more lightweight and resource friendly GUI’s like Fluxbox, or Blackbox, to suit users with older computers. There are also versions of Linux that are designed to emulate the Windows look and feel as closely as possible. Distributions such as Linspire are best suited for users that are migrating over from the Windows world. There are also distributions that include no graphical environment at all to better suit users that need to squeeze out all of the computing power that they can get for various computing activities, and for users that are more advanced than others. All of this configurability can be problematic sometimes, as you will have to make a decision on which desktop is right for you, and to make things easier on yourself you will need to only install applications that are native to your distribution and graphical environment.

(ref #1) The cost effectiveness of Linux is another way it separates itself from Windows. For home use Linux is cheap and in most cases completely free, while Windows varies in cost depending on which version you buy. With Linux most of the applications will also be free, however for Windows in the majority of cases you are suppose to pay for the applications. For most cases, with Linux there is no need to enter a product activation key when performing an installation, you are free to install it on as many computers as you’d like. With Windows you are only allowed to install it on one computer and Microsoft uses product activation software to enforce this rule. When installing Window’s you must enter a product activation key, which will expire after so many uses. If you wish too, you can purchase Linux from a variety of vendors, which will include a boxed set of CDs, Manuals, and TECH support for around 40-130$. Of course If you purchase a high-end version of Linux used for servers it may cost any where from 400$- 2000$. “In 2002 computer world magazine quoted the chief technology architect at Merrill Lynch in New York, as saying “the cost of running Linux is typically a tenth of the cost of running Unix or Windows alternatively.” (ref#1)

(ref #1) Installation of Windows is generally easier, than installing Linux. “With Windows XP there are three main ways to install. There is a clean install, in which you install Windows on a blank hard drive. There is also an upgrade install, in which you start with an older version of Windows and “upgrade” to a newer one. An advantage of upgrading is that all of the files on the older system should remain intact throughout the process. You can also perform a repair install, in which case you are installing the same version of Windows on top of itself in order to fix a damaged version of Windows. There is also a recovery, which Technically is not an install; it is used to restore a copy of Windows back to its factory settings. The disadvantage of recovering Windows is the fact that you will loose all of your data, which resides on the damaged copy of Windows.” (ref#1) Also with Windows you can rest assured that your hardware will most likely be supported by the operating software, although this is not much of a problem with Linux you cant be sure if Linux will support all of your hardware. With Linux installation varies greatly from Distro to Distro. You may be presented with a graphical installer or it may be a text-based installer, these variations make Linux a bit more difficult and unpredictable to install than is Windows, (although the difficulty is disappearing). You may perform a clean install of Linux or dual boot it, to co-exist with another operation software. With Linux rather than having to buy an upgrade Cd, you can install updates by downloading and then installing them while your desktop is running. With Linux it is also not necessary to reboot your computer after most upgrades, It is only necessary to reboot after an upgrade to the kernel. It is also possible to run Linux without ever needing to install it on a hard drive; there are many distributions of Linux that will allow you to run it straight off of a live cd. The advantage of this is that you do not need to alter your system in order to try Linux. You can run Linux off of the CD so you do not have to damage your Windows partition. Other advantages include the ability to rescue a broken Linux system. If your Linux computer will not boot, then you may insert a live cd and boot off it, so you can repair the damaged version of Linux. Also you may use a Linux live cd to recover files from a damaged Windows computer that will no longer boot up. Since Linux is capable of reading NTFS files you may copy files form a Windows computer to a USB flash drive or floppy drive etc.

Another major difference between Linux and Windows is the applications that you will use with either OS. Windows includes a much wider abundance of commercially backed applications than does Linux. It is much easier to find the software that you are looking for with Windows than it is with Linux, because so many software vendors make their products compatible with Windows only. With Linux you will for the most part be forced to let go of the familiar applications that you have grown accustomed to with Windows, in favor of lesser-known open source apps that are made for Linux. Applications such as Microsoft office, Outlook, Internet Explorer, Adobe Creative suite, and chat clients such as MSN messenger, do not work natively with Linux. Although with Linux you can get Microsoft office and Adobe creative suite to work using software from codeWeavers called cross Over Office. Instead of using these applications you will need to use Linux apps such as open office, The Gimp Image Editor, The ThunderBird email client, Instead of the MSN messenger you can use the GAIM messenger, and you can use Firefox as your web browser. Also with Linux it can be difficult to install software even if it is made for Linux. This is due to the fact that Linux has so many different versions. Software that is made to install on one version probably will require some configuration in order to install on another version. An example would be if you were trying to install software that was made for the KDE graphical environment, on the GNOME GUI, This app would not easily install on the GNOME GUI, and would require some configuring on your part to successfully install it.

The type of hard ware that Linux and windows runs on also causes them to differ. Linux will run on many different hardware platforms, from Intel and AMD chips, to computers running IBM power Pc processors. Linux will run on the slowest 386 machines to the biggest mainframes on the planet, newer versions of Windows will not run on the same amount of hardware as Linux. Linux can even be configured to run on apples, Ipod’s, or smart phones. A disadvantage of Linux is when it comes to using hardware devices such as Printers, Scanners, or Digital camera’s. Where as the driver software for these devices will often be easily available for Windows, with Linux you are for the most part left on your own to find drivers for these devices. Most Linux users will find comfort in the fact that drivers for the latest hardware are constantly being written by coders throughout the world and are usually very quickly made available.

(ref #1) One of the most notable differences between the two operating software’s is Windows legendary problems with malicious code, known as Viruses and Spy ware. Viruses, Spy-ware and a general lack of security are the biggest problems facing the Windows community. Under Windows Viruses and Spy-ware have the ability to execute themselves with little or no input from the user. This makes guarding against them a constant concern for any Windows user. Windows users are forced to employ third party anti virus software to help limit the possibility of the computer being rendered useless by malicious code. Anti virus software often has the negative side effect of hogging system resources, thus slowing down your entire computer, also most anti virus software requires that you pay a subscription service, and that you constantly download updates in order to stay ahead of the intruders. With Linux on the other hand problems with viruses are practically non-existent, and in reality you do not even need virus protection for your Linux machine. One reason why Viruses and Spy-ware are not a problem for Linux is simply due to the fact that there are far fewer being made for Linux. A more important reason is that running a virus on a Linux machine is more difficult and requires a lot more input from the user. With Windows you may accidentally run and execute a virus, by opening an email attachment, or by double clicking on a file that contains malicious code. However with Linux a virus would need to run in the terminal, which requires the user to give the file execute permissions, and then open it in the terminal. And in order to cause any real damage to the system the user would have to log in as root, by typing a user name and password before running the virus. Foe example to run a virus that is embedded in an email attachment the user would have to, open the attachment, then save it, then right click the file and chose properties form the menu, in properties they can give it execute permissions, they would then be able to open the file in the terminal to run the virus. And even then the user would only be able to damage his or her home folder, all other users data will be left untouched, and all root system files would also remain untouched, because Linux would require a root password to make changes to these files. The only way the user can damage the whole computer would be if he or she logged in as root user by providing the root user name and password to the terminal before running the virus. Unlike Windows in Linux an executable file cannot run automatically, It needs to be given execute permissions manually this significantly improves security. In Linux the only realistic reason you would need virus protection is if you share files with Windows users, and that is to protect them not you, so you are not to accidentally pass a virus to the Windows computer that you are sharing files with.

The above was a general over view of some differences between the Windows operating system, and Linux. To recap we started with the fact that Windows has only one vendor that releases the software, while Linux comes from millions of different coders throughout the world. We also commented on the fact that the Linux Kernel and much of the applications used with it are completely free of charge, where as with windows you are forced to pay for most of the software. Unlike Widows Linux is often lacking in professional Tech support, and Linux users are often left on their own to solve Technical issues. Linux users can either pay for Tech support or rely on the many Linux Forums and groups available on the Internet. Due to the fact that the kernel is open source, Linux has a huge advantage over Windows in configurability. You can configure Linux to run almost any way you see fit by manipulating the Kernel. Installing the Windows Operating software and applications is easier due to the fact that it has a universal installer. Also finding applications for Windows is easier because of its popularity most apps are available for Windows only, and are made easily available. Linux will run on a greater variety of hard ware than does Windows, from mainframe super computers running multiple IBM Power PC Chips, to a small laptop running an AMD processor. And of course the biggest difference in this writer’s opinion is the fact that Linux does not suffer from an onslaught of Viruses and other malicious code, unlike Windows which is plagued by countless number of malicious code that can easily destroy your system if not properly guarded against.

In conclusion we will conclude that the Linux OS really is the superior software. Other than a few minor nuisances, linux out performs Windows in most categories. The fact that Linux is more secure is the tipping point, that tilts the scales in the favor of Linux. Windows simply suffers from far to many security vulnerabilities for it to be considered the better over all desktop environment.

References

michaelhorowitz.com/Linux.vs.Windows.html Reference #1

theinquirer.net/en/inquirer/news/2004/10/27/linux-more-secure-than-windows-says-study Reference #2

linux.com/whatislinux/ reference number 3

.linux.org/info/

Reference #4

en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linux%5Fkernel Reference #5

/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KDE Reference #6

/en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GNOME Reference #7

http://www.alinuxworld.com i wrote this article for part of a final project for my unix class while in college. i also run a linux website at the following url http://www.alinuxworld.com

Linux Training – Installing Linux on a Windows System
By Clyde E. Boom

The best way to get Linux training and Linux administration experience is to start by getting, installing and running Linux on a system. This allows you to actually work with Linux to run programs and learn Linux commands.

If you don’t want to buy a computer just for the purpose of running Linux, you can install Linux on your Windows system. You do this to create what is called a “dual boot” (Linux and Windows) system.

After you install Linux and boot your system, a menu appears allowing you to boot into Windows or boot into Linux!

7 Steps to Install Linux on Windows and Create a Dual Boot System

1. Back up your Windows programs and data

If you make a mistake when you install Linux on Windows you can loose all your Windows programs and data! Also, if you install Linux and then remove it later, you may not be able to boot into Windows.

Some people have run dual boot Linux systems without losing programs and data, but it’s good to know this downside. It’s extra incentive to do a backup.

Doing a backup is like buying insurance. If you don’t need it, fine. But if you do, you’ll be very glad you took this extra step.

2. Get Linux on CD or DVD

Select a Linux distribution (a.k.a. distro) and either download it and burn it to disk or buy it and have it delivered.

Linux Tip: To get Linux delivered, just do an Internet search for “linux cd” and you can have it mailed to you anywhere in the world for a very small fee.

3. Create empty unpartitioned disk space for Linux

Make sure your system has enough empty unpartitioned disk space for Linux. This isn’t just free disk space, as seen from within Windows. This is empty disk space that isn’t seen from within Windows.

4. Document your Linux installation settings

During the Linux installation, you need to specify some system settings. These include the Linux software programs and desktop(s) you want installed, networking settings, and disk partition sizes.

5. Start the Linux installation routine

To start installing Linux, you need to shut down your system and boot it with Linux CD / DVD number 1.

Some systems are set up to automatically boot from a CD / DVD if there’s one in the drive, and some need to have a system setting made. On other systems, you may simply need to hold down a key, like the letter “c” to boot Linux from CD / DVD.

6. Follow the prompts to specify settings and create a user

Linux systems have users and these users have names. You log in with a user name and password to work on a Linux system.

You work as the user named “root” to do Linux system administration. The root user is always created automatically during the installation. However, for security reasons, you should never log in to a Linux desktop as the root user.

As the installation routine runs, you will be asked if you want to create users. Always create at least one “regular” (non- root) user and give this user a password.

7. Have fun!

The Linux operating system is an incredible phenomenon. By getting it, installing it, and running it, you can get tons of experience working with it. Get a mitt and get in the game!

And now I would like to offer you free access to my Linux Commands Training Mini-Course, a 7 Lesson, Daily Mini-Course, including the free Linux Commands ebook and Linux audio podcasts – showing you how to get started learning how to use Linux commands.

You can get your instant access at: http://www.LinuxCommandsTrainingCourse.com

From Clyde Boom – The Easy Linux Training Guy – Easy, self-paced Linux training – In Plain English!

Understanding the Linux File System
By Brandon Sherwood

The way Linux organizes its files on the hard drive is vastly different from how Windows handles this task. New Linux users coming from Windows sometime have a hard time maneuvering though directories or come with notions that Linux should manage its files in the same vain as Windows.

This article was written to help new users get a grasp on moving through directories on their new installation. One key point to make is Windows deals with “drives” as in your C: drive or D: drive, Linux deals with something called ‘mount points’. These are locations where other hard drives, CD/DVD burners, etc… connect to the root partition. Don’t worry it will all make sense latter on.

It All Begins With Root: /

The root directory known simply as ‘/’ is the starting point. Without getting to technical, the root directory acts like the ‘C: Drive’ in Windows. A Linux system can not fully boot without a root partition, in the same way as deleting your C:WINDOWS folder will make your Windows computer inoperable.

It’s In: /bin

The /bin folder holds important system programs. The ‘bin’ is short for ‘binary’. Some of the popular programs: date, less, more, cat, dmesg. These programs are essential in order to start and have a complete operating system. While you may never use one of these programs personally, the system relies on some of them.

Where Everything Starts: /boot

As the name implies, /boot is where the crucial files reside, mainly the kernel. Without the kernel, you don’t have a system. Another crucial program located in /boot is the bootloader. Just like Linux needs the kernel to function. The bootloader is there to actually locate the kernel and begin running it.

Every Device Is A File: /dev

In Linux, every device is a file. What this means is, when you connect a hard drive to your system it gets a ‘device file’ that allows the system to interact with it. When the kernel locates a new hard drive it is assigned a file like “/dev/sda”. The /dev part is the directory and the ’sda’ part is the file that connects to the hardware. So if you wanted to format your whole drive you could type in the command ‘dd if=/dev/null of=/dev/sda’. This would copy /dev/null into your hard drive. /dev/null is a “bit bucket”. Meaning that everything that gets sent to it gets deleted.

Configuration-ness: /etc

Linux, being a customizable system keeps all the programs config’ files in this directory. Most programs come with a sensible and secure default behavior. But what happens if you want to change it? The /etc holds a slew of text files for you to open and customize how your programs operate. An important note to make is /etc manages global defaults. What this means is if you change a file this directory, it will affect the whole system.

The Shared Libraries: /lib

The /lib directory is a way to keep all software libraries in one central location. Most (if not all) files here have a file extension of ‘.so’ to let you know they are ’shared object’ files. These files are code that can be used by multiple programs. This helps prevent a problem known as ’software bloat’. Windows also has these files; they are called ‘Dynamically Linked Libraries’ or DLL for short. As a regular Linux end user, you will most likely never have to change anything in this folder. Depending on how you install software on your computer, you might come across a ‘missing shared object’ problem if your software “depends” on another program to function. The Windows equivalent is ‘DLL hell’.

When You Don’t Shut Down Correctly: /lost+found

This directory is used when the user does not shut down the system correctly (turning it off when the system is still up and running). Upon the next boot, the system will try and correct itself by scanning the hard drive for corrupt files and try to correct any problems that arise. If anything is found, it will be placed in the /lost+found directory for the systems administrator (you!) to see and look over.

Where The ‘Mount Points’ Live: /mnt and /media

The /mnt and /media directories are for ‘attaching’ other devices to the root directory. In Windows, when you insert a USB thumbstick, you will see the system gives it a drive letter (E:). Depending on which Linux distribution you use, the device will either ‘auto mount’ or the user has to mount the device manually. Most newer, newbie friendly distros will auto mount the device and place it in one of these directories. You will be able to browse the files within your thumbstick at /mnt/usb or /media/usb. Each distribution is different, so my example could not exactly match your results.

/media is the newcomer to the Linux scene. Most older distributions exclusively used /mnt to manage these devices, but /media is gaining ground as the default location to mount devices. Linux allows you to mount any device anywhere (as long as you have the permissions). So it is completely feasible to mount one device under ‘/bin/mount’ or ‘/var/log’. This is usually not a good idea and the /mnt and /media directories where put in place to make this easier.

The ‘Optional’ Directory: /opt

This is where users can install software if no other suitable location can be used. Most software from major Linux distributions have ’software repositories’ which allow users to easily add and remove tons of programs. But what happens when you need a program that isn’t in the repository? In order to separate repository software packages from ‘external’ packages, sometimes the best way to install them is putting them in /opt. This practice is rarely used though and each distribution is different. Some will place the popular KDE into /opt, while other distributions won’t.

My personal rule of thumb is to use /opt when the software you are installing defaults to this directory (The Google Earth program does this) or I am installing a program that I didn’t get in the software repository.

The Kernel’s Directory:/proc and /sys

Both of these directories hold a wealth of information about the status of your system. Files like ‘/proc/cpuinfo’ contain information about your CPU (speed, vendor, cache size). The /proc directory is slowly being faded out in favor of /sys.

You Were Here And Now Your Gone: /tmp

The /tmp directory is short for ‘temporary’. So with that in mind, I am sure you can deduce why this directory is used. You got it, to manage temporary files. Programs can generate a lot of ‘junk output’ or need to write to a file to handle a task; but the file can be deleted once the task is completed. This directory provides a central location to do this and not fill your other directories with these files.

Where The Programs Live: /usr

The /usr directory is a monster. Articles could be written just to explain it all. But to keep things short and sweet, the /usr is where all of your ’secondary’ programs are stored. Granted you love your music player, but it’s not crucial to your operating system actually functioning. So instead of putting all the executables in /bin, we break it up a bit. We place crucial system programs in /bin and non-critical programs into /usr/bin. The /usr directory could be seen as the Windows equivalent as C:Program Files .

The Not So Temporary Files: /var

/var (for varying or variable) acts like /tmp in the sense that the files located are ‘temporary’ but less ‘temporary’ then those in /tmp. What this really means is the /tmp directory will most likely be deleted every time the system reboots, while the files in /var will not. /var is a place to keep ‘persistent’ files. An example would be log files. Most system administrators wouldn’t want to delete their log files on every reboot, but the files could be removed or ’shrunk’ to a more manageable level at the administrators whim.

Another example would be ‘/var/mail’ directory. It contains the mail being sent to users on the system. Some users will have hundreds of messages, while other users will have a few or none. The directory is growing and shrinking depending on the usage by the users. So in order to keep the disk usage under manageable levels, we place this activity under /var. On large systems, the system administrator will use a separate hard drive and ‘mount’ the hard drive at /var. This allows the frequent disk access to remain on one hard drive and keep the overall system speedy.

Conclusion

Well I hoped that this article has better acquainted you to how files are stored on a Linux system. If I left anything out (or for general praise), please feel free to comment on the article.

Brandon Sherwood

http://www.newbtopro.com – Howto’s and Tutorials

Wireless Network Security: How to Use Kismet
By Eric Meyer

Kismet is a wireless network detector / sniffer which can give you a vast amount of information about wireless networks. Wireless network security flaws are well documented but often very hard for the common person to understand. I will be showing you how to use kismet with out even having to install Linux, or compile kismet.

First you need to proceed to remote-exploit.org and download and burn their Auditor CD. (IF you don’t know how to burn an ISO image, go to Google). This version of Linux doesn’t install or modify your hard drive; it will boot from the CD and use a Ram Drive (On your Memory).

Auditor is not only a great tool for testing wireless network security with kismet but it also has many other computer security tools on it as well.

Client Window

Next, to start Kismet proceed to the Linux version of the start menu, and press Auditor.
Now proceed to the wireless /scanning/kismet tools/kismet.

Once you click on Kismet it will ask you for a default location to place the Kismet log files for analyzing later, just press the desktop or temp file.

Now I will show you how to use Kismet. When kismet initially opens you will see a greenish box with numbers and network names (If any are near you) clicking away don’t be overwhelmed. (Also I can’t show you how to use kismet if you don’t have the correct wireless adapter, get an ORINICO Gold Classic Card off EBAY.) The Orninco gold classic card will be automaticly detected by auditor linux.

The Kismet columns will show the wireless networks SSID (Name), Type of device (Access point, gateway) Encryption or no Encryption, an IP range and number of packets. Kismet will pick up hidden networks with SSID broadcast Disabled also, Netstumbler will not.

Now Press H, to bring up the Help Menu. This will give the nuts and bolts on how to use kismet. If you tab down to the network you are auditing and press “C”, Kismet will show you all the computers that are using that wireless access point / gateway. This Kismet screen will show you the clients MAC address, Manufacture of Wireless Adapter, IP address range and traffic.

Kismet: Help Menue

Now to get out of that screen press “Q”. Tab Down on the Main Kismet Screen to another SSID and press “I”. This Kismet window will show detailed information about the wireless network. The Kismet detail screen will show the type of network (Infrastructrure / Adhoc), signal strength, channel, encryption type, and much more.

Kismet will also give you sound alerts when new wireless networks are discovered or security alerts or suspicious clients are in range. Suspicious clients would be people like you who are using Kismet or Networkstumbler. Unlike you these could be Wardrivers looking for venerable networks to hack into.

Kismet Alert Page

You can prevent War drivers from discovering your wireless network by performing a proper site survey which will help limit signal bleed off to unneeded areas. You should write down the suspicious MAC address and keep an eye on your access logs. If the War Drivers are really stupid just look out your window and look for cars with weird antennas.HA HA HA.

Kismet is more than just a tool to discover wireless networks; it can be used in conjunction with other tools to crack WEP/WPA. Many websites will claim that WEP can be cracked in less that five minutes. This is only half the truth because it could take many hours,days,months to gather enough packets to crack. Good luck and have fun learning the more advanced applications of kismet.

Keep your wireless network simple and secure. Join the most popular wireless networking newsletter on the internet http://www.wirelessninja.com

Make a Linux Home Data Server of an Old PC

By Adam Knife

So, you’ve got an old computer, and you don’t know what to do with it. Sure, it can’t play new video games, maybe can’t run the latest and greatest software, don’t fret, it’s not totally worthless. Converting your old computer in to a home data server opens a range of possibilities, and a range of new things you can do with your computer(s) and the network.

So, how do you do it? Well, if it’s already set up for Windows Networking, you’ve got the basics set up for a Windows file server, and can simply use your local area network for transfering/working with files, however, this article is going to show you the more effective, and more powerful way: setting up a Linux file server.

The first step is to pick a Linux distro, DistroWatch.com lists the most popular distributions, and reviews a range of distributions, we’re going to use the Ubuntu [5.10] operating system, with a server installation, simply because it’s the operating system this author uses for his desktop, and is quickly becoming the most popular distribution around.

Your old computer likely has enough memory, and a powerful enough CPU to run Ubuntu, however, if you intend to use this server as a major central file server, it will likely need a new hard-drive. You can deal with that on your own.

When you insert the Ubuntu CD, and boot to it, instead of just pressing [enter] at the boot screen, type ’server’ then press enter – this will prevent it from installing any of the *-desktop packages, and not setting up any unneeded applications.

After following the steps of installation, you will be prompted with a logon screen – enter the username and password you provided during installation, and you are in your brand new Linux system. From here, you can do everything from browse the web, to set up the computer for various networking tasks, to play a range of Linux-based games.

Package management is a critical part of running a Linux system, luckily Ubuntu comes with two distinct and useful tools to aid in your package managing. Aptitude [which, is actually just a UI for apt-get] and apt-get.

A package called “samba” will allow you to set up proper networking between Linux and Windows computers (at least, we hope you’ve got your networking issues sorted out). Running “sudo apt-get install samba” in your new command line will tell the apt-get application to install the samba package, and set it up with default settings.

Once samba is installed, you’ll want to set it up to share certain files/directories, and set them up on your network – samba networking is a massive topic of it’s own, and way beyond the scope of this article, however, running “man samba” will give you the samba manual file, which lists off a series of other manuals to look at. Google’s always helpful too. :)

Now, once you have networking and samba set up, you should be able to transfer files between Windows and Linux through Network Neighborhood/smbclient – you’ve now got a basic data server set up. That was easy, wasn’t it?

For those who want to go further, Pure-FTPd will allow you to set up a fully featured FTP (file transfer protocol) server on this box, which you could use to access your files remotely from any computer set up with an FTP client (Windows Explorer has one built in!), setting up an Apache based web-server is fairly simple with Ubuntu’s apt-get packages, and OpenSSH allows the user to remotely log in to the Linux shell from any computer equipped with an SSH client.

A slight advancement to this system could allow you to set up Bash scripts combined with cron would allow you to set up scripts which immediately backup files every X days, or scripts to do certain processing to files at certain times – the possibilities are effectively endless.

Adan X. Knife is a computer scientist, entrepreneur and web developer. He currently runs a network of websites including one about High Definition Technology and a Free Games Library. He also runs a range of communication related sites including his cellular phone reviews site.

The Benefits of Linux Dedicated Servers
By James Koh

Money is one of the most important factors for anyone who is considering to use a dedicated web server host regardless of the scale of business they own. Cash is the utmost determinant of all businesses. The best Linux dedicated server statistical distributions no not require any amount of money which gives an advantage over separate licences for each and every software package that Microsoft introduce. Thereby, you can invest your budget on the hardware which forms the backbone of your project.

One of the better things that you need to know about is that of course, trustworthy and safety are really well documented when talking about Linux servers, and this is really one of the more important things you need to talk about when concerning finding out as much as you can on the benefits of the Linux server. They are well known to be running for months on end, giving reliable performance without any need for maintenance at all.

When you are talking about normal servers that run on popular servers or even talking about coded software, one thing you need to realise, when you are talking about comparisons is that Linux always runs for much longer then any others, and this is one of the main reasons that you should think about when you are talking about being able to get something that will stand the test of time. For someone who uses their computer at home, and uses a in house server, an occasional crash and a need to reboot is something that is not much of a big deal for them, and what you need to understand is that when you are talking about someone who is running a business online, this can be catastrophic and they could lose thousands and thousands of dollars on a single day when their website is not up.

Sometimes, they route the problem by having a ghost server running an exact duplicate of their website on the same server but with a different backbone, but what if the main webhost and all its pipelines are affected, and if your ghost secure server is built on the same backbone, what you need to think about is that there could be a universal crash and all the data that is inside might actually disappear together with any transactions or any financial information as well and this is really important. So you really need a server that is really reliable, able to actually give some security to the customers on your e-commerce site.

This is why you need to think about why you should be using a Linux server. One of the things that you need to also know is that the Linux server is able to actually communicate with a host of operating systems with some really good ease, and this is actually an advantage when you need to connect the server with other platforms to form a network where complementary businesses can actually operate.

Vodien Internet Solutions provides all-in-one web hosting packages. Find out more details about their Singapore web hosting packages at their website.

Welcome to the Linux Generation
By Jason A English

With our economy having its, well, ups and downs lately, you might be thinking “Is now really a good time to think about purchasing a new computer?” Meanwhile, software applications that once needed robust hardware to run are now moving on to the Internet. The result is an upturn in the purchase of netbooks and low powered “Internet Appliances”, most of which cost less than a really nice new shirt (well, not really, but you get the idea).

With the onslaught of relatively inexpensive PCs coming from every major manufacturer and aimed at the new “cloud” generation, many are running one flavor or another of Linux. Why? Because Linux can be a rock-stable, slim Operating System, making it a perfect choice for these “slimmed-down” machines. In short, Linux may be THE answer for lower-end hardware based computers.

When it comes to the rest of the computing world, generally you only see Windows Vista or Mac OS X – but when it comes to netbooks, low requirement PC’s, and many other digital devices (routers, cell phones, televisions, PDA’s and more), Linux is making some big headway. In short, Linux is an almost perfect fit for with lower CPU and power requirements.

For those pinching pennies (and who isn’t these days?), a Linux-based PC may be the best of all worlds. Using Linux, one can resurrect a thought-to-be-obsolete desktop or laptop with an up to date, safe, and easy to use operating system. One example – our office currently houses six PC’s being used for various tasks by our staff, all running Linux. They are all Dell GX150 PC’s with Pentium 3 CPU’s running at 933Mhz, with 256MB of ram and 20GB hard drive space each, as well as one “server” – a 2.4Ghz Compaq with 512MB of ram and two 500GB hard drives (running Linux, of course, and this is our NAS, print server, firewall/router, and more). Our entire network cost about $800. That’s less than a lot of new workstation PC’s.

The beauty of this OS is its stability, as any Linux user can attest to. Linux is stable. Like rock-solid stable. Linux machines don’t crash, they boot quickly, and are far more reliable computers than their XP and Vista counterparts. However, there are still a few folks out there who are going to go with the XP option for familiarity’s sake. Linux is new to most people, and people generally don’t like having to learn something new unless they have to. Most don’t realize all the software they’re accustomed to can (generally) be replaced by a Linux alternative, and for far less cash outlay. They don’t understand that the savings in computer repairs stemming from Windows’ vulnerabilities to virus’s and malware. They haven’t been told about the huge increase in security Linux provides compared to Windows.

All that being said, the move to Linux computing is becoming more noticeable now than ever before. Without the economic crisis to factor in to people’s spending decisions, people probably wouldn’t have considered the Linux option as strongly as they’re doing today. When every dollar saved counts, the decision to go Linux may be more about cost savings than anything else, but that might be what it takes to get people to try the OS computer geeks have been raving about for years. Give Linux a shot, and you might be surprised.

Jason English

ShopForLinux

http://www.ShopForLinux.com

sales@shopforlinux.com

http://www.ShopForLinux.com

How to Install Linux on PS3
By Munyaradzi Chinongoza

So you want to know how to install Linux on your PS3, huh? Well if you do not know what Linux is, it is an operating system just like Windows. This software is available for free online and there are different versions available to suit different needs.

The process is quite simple. After you have backed up all your saved files, you can go ahead and format your hard drive. Go to ‘System Settings’ then ‘Format Utility’. You will be asked whether you want to format your hard drive. Select ‘Yes’. Now for the partition setting choose the ‘Custom’ setting. This will allow you to allot 10 gigabytes to another operating system.

Insert into your PS3’s disk drive your Ubuntu Linux software that you have downloaded free online and have burnt to a disc as an ISO image file. Go to ‘System Settings’ then scroll down to ‘Install Other OS’. The system will carry out a scan and the disk you inserted into the disk drive should be picked up.

Once you select ‘Enter’ a blue boot screen will pop up, the same as you see on a computer and you will be guided through all the installation steps just like you would be when installing any other software on your computer. Your controller will stop working during this process so you need to have your USB mouse and keyboard plugged in before you start.

During the installation process, do not unplug anything that is plugged into your console or else a red screen will pop up saying installation failure. So even just your external hard drive, do not unplug anything or else the whole process will be canceled and you have to restart.

Remember the software does take a while to install on your PS3, you have to be patient. Once you have installed it, remove the CD from the drive or the system will try access it again when you want to boot your new Linux partition.

Next, discover how to install Linux on your PS3 safely and effectively without voiding your warranty using our special Linux for PS3 installer software. It’s all there for you at our blog: http://ps3linux101.blogspot.com/

Linux – Getting the Correct Time
By Richard N Williams

Ensuring a computer is not only displaying the correct time but that it is being maintained accurately is not as straight-forward as it first sounds.

Most Linux systems have two clocks. The hardware clock, also known as the CMOS of Bios clock, is usually a simple crystal oscillator with battery back-up that maintains time when your system is off or boots up. This clock is usually located on the motherboard and will run all the time, however these clock chips tend to lose time as the computer ages and the battery weakens.

The other clock, the system clock, is a software clock and it starts when you boot up your system often getting an initial time from the hardware clock. System clocks keep time by adding seconds on to a prime epoch, a base time that for Linux and Unix, began at midnight on January 1, 1970.

However, the hardware clock is a cheap electronic oscillator and cannot maintain time to any useful degree of accuracy. They often drift several seconds a day which for day-to-day process is probably adequate but with time sensitive applications it can cause serious problems.

A better way is to set the system clock using the time from a NTP (Network Time Protocol) time server. These dedicated time servers get a UTC (Coordinated Universal Time) time from an atomic clock which are the most accurate time keepers in the world, not losing a second in time in several millions of years.

Dedicated NTP servers use either a radio receiver to pick-up a radio time and frequency broadcast which are transmitted by several national laboratories or by using the timing signal broadcast from the GPS network.

Linux uses a NTP service called NTP Daemon (ntpd). This uses NTP to adjust the system clock for any drift in time as it frequently check the UTC time source.

To configure the NTP daemon the ntp.conf file in the /etc directory can be used. From here more than one time server can be used as a reference and also the frequency it is checked can also be altered.

Richard N Williams is a technical author and specialist in atomic clocks, telecommunications, NTP and network time synchronisation helping to develop dedicated NTP clocks. Please visit us for more information about a network time server or other ntp server solutions.

Linux Boot Process
By Erik Schweigert

As many people have often wondered, how does the Linux/Unix operating system boot? How could I put in a process to run during boot so that I do not have to start it every time manually? To do this one has to understand the basic

click for full-size

environment procedure that is currently in place to add anything to it.

On a typical Linux system, I prefer Debian, the bootloader points to the kernel which in turn points to a file under /etc known as inittab. The interaction between the bootloader and the kernel is complex enough for another article.

1. The /etc/inittab is a file that contains a set of instructions to call a specific directory under the /etc directory. It is a Shell script that looks something like this:# /etc/inittab: init(8) configuration.
   # $Id: inittab,v 1.91 2002/01/25 13:35:21 miquels Exp $

   # The default runlevel.
   id:2:initdefault:

   # Boot-time system configuration/initialization script.
   # This is run first except when booting in emergency (-b) mode.
   si::sysinit:/etc/init.d/rcS

2. The system then calls the /etc/init.d/rcS shell script. This script then executes each shell script found in /etc/rcS.d/ directory. When an application is added to the system it will place its startup script in either the /etc/rcS.d/ or the /etc/rc2.d/ directory. This set of scripts are run initially and are system specific and should never be tampered with. After this set of scripts spawns off each process the /etc/init.d/rcS script then calls all files under /etc/rc2.d/ directory. The /etc/rc2.d/ directory is usually application software and not software required specifically for the system.Each file in these directories has a S(for start) and a number. For example: S43portmap. The number does not mean it will be the 43rd process started, but instead is used to stagger which process is started. Thus, if you wanted something to start before or after S43portmap you would set the prefix to be S40 for before the S43portmap and S50 for after the S43portmap.
3. If you wanted to add your own application to be run you should always add it into the /etc/rc2.d/ directory. The /etc/rc2.d/ is the default runlevel used on most Linux systems.
4. If you find yourself in the /etc/rc2.d/ directory you may notice that each file is actually symlinked back to the /etc/init.d/ directory. You are in fact correct. Its actually pretty neat if you think about it, as you could just create a symlink with a different number to start any of these scripts at a different time. This also gives the flexibility to the user to easily modify the boot process for his/her system.

Now show me how to do that in Windows!

For more information related to Linux and UNIX head over to linuxtechutopia.com

Erik is an avid Linux user and has experience with a wide variety of Linux/Unix based systems. In his spare time he likes writing software (C/C++/Perl/PHP/BASH/Python) and experimenting with different Linux distributions. He is starting to build a wide variety of articles Unix driven (what a surprise) that hope to inform those just getting into Linux on his website.

http://www.linuxtechutopia.com